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Water companies develop water loss control strategies and design programs considering economic, technical, social and environmental aspects [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. The main underlying principles of the strategy include four aspects. First, the strategy must be holistic, as reducing NRW cannot be solved by a single project [4]. Several activities, such as water audit, establishment and management of measurement areas (DMA), leak detection and repair, and pressure management, can be divided into modules depending on local conditions. Second, water loss control programs should be flexible and tailored to the specific needs and characteristics of the water supply system [13]. Appropriate countermeasures should be selected based on the types and extent of releases and the cost of techniques used to mitigate specific components of the release. Therefore, it is essential that water utility managers conduct assessments of the physical characteristics of the network and evaluate current operational practices to understand why, how, and where water is lost [14]. Third, water loss programs should be considered from a long-term perspective, which should consistently achieve economic leakage levels and maintain low levels after initial progress [15]. It should be emphasized that while initial gains can be made by reducing non-revenue water, there are no shortcuts to a long-term sustainable water loss reduction strategy. In order to achieve sustainable results, management practices related to the organization, procedures and human resources of the company should be reviewed. Finally, all water utilities should prioritize apparent losses (AL) due to meter inaccuracy, data processing and billing errors, and unauthorized consumption (such as meter tampering and water theft) rather than real losses (RL). and pipe burst leakage [4]. AL restoration is possible with little effort at relatively low cost and directly improves the financial situation of the water company, especially at the beginning of the NRW reduction program [16]. However, this requires sustained leadership commitment, political will and community support. These principles are widely accepted and applied by water utilities around the world. However, the current problem is that natural resource management strategies have historically been characterized by sectoral approaches and discrete policy responses [17]. If a significant amount of produced water is lost through leakage and never reaches end users, the energy used to treat and distribute the water is wasted. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are also emitted during energy production as well as water and wastewater treatment processes. Therefore, new management approaches are needed to address the complex relationships and ensure the sustainability of natural resources by interpreting the interactions and feedbacks between different water-related sectors.

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“Nexus thinking” was first coined by the World Economic Forum in 2011 to promote the concept of inextricable links between resource use to ensure basic and universal rights to food, water and energy security [18]. Although various researchers and organizations have proposed a Nexus definition with conflicting interpretations in different sectors and contexts [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ], no consensus has been reached regarding the Nexus definition. What is certain is that the ultimate goal of the Nexus approach is to identify potential synergies and minimize trade-offs between sectors. In the water sector, a Nexus approach has emerged in the form of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), which emphasizes a multifaceted approach to resource management [23]. Currently, IWRM is implemented in several countries to balance water allocation for energy (e.g. hydropower generation), food demand (e.g. irrigation) and environmental protection (e.g. river flow maintenance). However, IWRM considers water as the main component, while other sectors are dependent [19]. As IWRM constraints are overcome, the scale of consideration of water issues from the Nexus perspective gradually increases. Specifically for the 2030 Agenda, three of the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), such as zero hunger (SDG 2), clean water and sanitation (SDG 6), and affordable and clean energy (SDG 7), are directly related to water. . food and energy sector [19]. Nexus has been recognized as a useful approach to quantify and evaluate interactions between different targets [ 24 , 25 ]. It is also possible to evaluate the effects that the realization of one goal can have on the realization of other goals. Various approaches, frameworks and methodologies have been proposed for Nexus analysis, mostly borrowed or adapted from conventional disciplinary approaches. Questionnaire surveys [26, 27, 28, 29], input-output analysis [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36], cost-benefit analysis [5], life cycle assessment [37, 38, 39, 40], system dynamics (SD) [41], agent-based modeling [42], statistical applications [43, 44, 45] and mechanistic modeling [46, 47, 48, 49, 50] . In addition, innovative tools such as CLEW3 [51], MuSIASEM [52], GAEZ-WEAP-LEAP [53] and MESSAGE [54] have been developed and designed. Unfortunately, each case of nexus is unique and no general and comprehensive nexus modeling approach is suitable for all situations to model and quantify linkages between sectors [27, 55]. Different methodologies have different data requirements, advantages and limitations and only work at specific geographic scales [56]. Therefore, it is very important to choose an appropriate modeling method according to the understanding of different temporal and spatial scales, interactions, actions of different stakeholders from each sector and availability of data.

The processes of drinking water supply, wastewater removal, and stormwater drainage form the urban water cycle (UWC) or urban water system (UWS) [57, 58]. Water companies are primarily responsible for UWS processes. urban